No one would have guessed that this proper daughter of an English clergyman
could have possessed such ironic humor, keen insight, and biting wit regarding
the social lives of those in her pre-Victorian era. No one would have guessed
it, and indeed very few besides her family and close friends even knew. During
the early 1800s when Jane Austen was composing and publishing her works,
fictional novels were frowned upon by some segments of society, and novels
written by women were especially shunned. In fact, many of Austen’s works went
to print with no name on the title page to avoid linking her to the negative
stigma of female authorship. Although anonymity and lack of recognition and fame
characterized her life, Jane Austen’s novels have since become celebrated,
enjoyed, and studied for their humorous and pointed observations of societal
life, lively character interaction, and detailed style.
William Wordsworth |
Wordsworth
was a defining member of the English Romantic Movement. Like other
Romantics, Wordsworth’s personality and poetry were deeply influenced by
his love of nature, especially by the sights and scenes of the Lake
Country, in which he spent most of his mature life. A profoundly earnest
and sincere thinker, he displayed a high seriousness tempered with
tenderness and a love of simplicity http://www.bartleby.com/145/. |
Very little credible information is know about Hafiz's life, particularly its early part. Immediately after his death, many stories, some of mythical proportions were woven around his life. The following is an attempt at encapsulating what we know with a fair amount of certainty about Hafiz's life
Sometime between the years 1310-1325 a.d. or 712-727 A.H. The most probable date is either 1320, or 1325 a.d.
Shiraz, in South-central Iran
Shamseddin Mohammad
Hafiz or Hafez (a title given to those who had memorized the Koran by heart. It is claimed that Hafiz had done this in fourteen different ways).
Khajeh Shamseddin Mohammad Hafiz-s Shirazi
Other variations of spelling are:
Khwajeh Shams al-Din Muhammad Hafez-e Shirazi,
or Khwaje Shams ud-Din Mohammed Hafiz-e Shirazi
Baha-ud-Din
He had two older brothers
Hafiz married in his twenties, even though he continued his love for Shakh-e Nabat, as the manifest symbol of her Creator's beauty.
Hafiz had one child.
He had memorized the Koran by listening to his father's recitations of it. He also had memorized many of the works of his hero, Saadi, as wells as Attar, Rumi and Nizami.
His father who was a coal merchant died, leaving him and his mother with much debt. Hafiz and his mother went to live with his uncle (also called Saadi). He left day school to work in a drapery shop and later in a bakery.
While still working at the bakery, Hafiz delivered bread to a wealthy quarter of town and saw Shakh-e Nabat, a young woman of incredible beauty. Many of his poems are addressed to Shakh-e Nabat.
Mark Twain | |
---|---|
Mark Twain, photo by A. F. Bradley New York, 1907 | |
Born | Samuel Langhorne Clemens November 30, 1835 Florida, Missouri, U.S. |
Died | April 21, 1910 Redding, Connecticut, U.S. | (aged 74)
Pen name | Mark Twain |
Occupation | Writer, lecturer |
Nationality | American |
Genres | Fiction, historical fiction, children's literature, non-fiction, travel literature, satire, essay, philosophical literature, social commentary, literary criticism |
Notable work(s) | Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer |
Spouse(s) | Olivia Langdon Clemens (m. 1870–1904) |
Children | Langdon, Susy, Clara, Jean |
Angus McBean Photograph, © Harvard Theatre Collection. Used by permission. |
|
Thomas Stearns Eliot was born in Missouri on September 26, 1888. He lived in St. Louis during the first eighteen years of his life and attended Harvard University. In 1910, he left the United States for the Sorbonne, having earned both undergraduate and masters degrees and having contributed several poems to the Harvard Advocate.
After a year in Paris, he returned to Harvard to pursue a doctorate in philosophy, but returned to Europe and settled in England in 1914. The following year, he married Vivienne Haigh-Wood and began working in London, first as a teacher, and later for Lloyd's Bank.
It was in London that Eliot came under the influence of his contemporary Ezra Pound, who recognized his poetic genius at once, and assisted in the publication of his work in a number of magazines, most notably "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" in Poetry in 1915. His first book of poems, Prufrock and Other Observations, was published in 1917, and immediately established him as a leading poet of the avant-garde. With the publication of The Waste Land in 1922, now considered by many to be the single most influential poetic work of the twentieth century, Eliot's reputation began to grow to nearly mythic proportions; by 1930, and for the next thirty years, he was the most dominant figure in poetry and literary criticism in the English-speaking world.
ادامه مطلب ...Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈniːtsʃə]; in English UK: /ˈniːtʃə/, US: /ˈniːtʃi/[1]) (October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) was a 19th-century German philosopher and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
Nietzsche's influence remains substantial within and beyond philosophy, notably in existentialism, nihilism, and postmodernism. His style and radical questioning of the value and objectivity of truth have resulted in much commentary and interpretation, mostly in the continental tradition. His key ideas include the death of God, perspectivism, the Übermensch, the eternal recurrence, and the will to power. Central to his philosophy is the idea of “life-affirmation,” which involves an honest questioning of all doctrines that drain life's expansive energies, however socially prevalent those views might be.[2]
Nietzsche began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. At the age of 24 he was appointed to the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel (the youngest individual to have held this position), but resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life. In 1889 he became mentally ill, possibly due to atypical general paralysis attributed to tertiary syphilis.[3] He lived his remaining years in the care of his mother until her death in 1897, then under the care of his sister until his death in 1900.
مردی با نشاط و پرقدرت و در نویسندگی پرشور و رسام و مصدر زندگی مردم انگلستان قرن چهاردهم بود. اصلش فرانسوی ونامش به معنای کفشگر، پدرش یک تن میفروش در لندن بود از جوانی از مطالعه کتاب غفلت نکرد، سفرهای داخل و خارج انگلستان وی را شاعری توانا کرد مخصوصاً ادبیات ایتالیائی در وی تأثیر گذاشت، روزگارش با اعانات و کارهای دولتی که میکرد میگذشت و چون مرد او را بواسطه اینکه مستأجر املاک دیر وستمینستر بود در این گورستان به خاک سپردند نه بخاطر شاعری، چوسر مطالعه را خیلی دوست میداشت و بعد از اتمام هر شغل موظف، خود را به کتابهایش میرسانید و غرق در مطالعه میشد.
کتاب دوشس، انجمن ماکیان، افسانههای زنان خوب، خانه شهوت را بنظم درآورد تسلی بخش فلسفه اثر بئوتیوس Boethius را ترجمه کرد. در سرودن منظومه تروپلوس و کریسید گرچه طولانی و شاید خسته کننده است، ولی بزرگترین شعر روانی انگلستان میباشد که از آثار کاچیو استفاده کرد و بر 2730 بیتی که از بوکاچیو گرفت 5696 بیت نیز افزود.
کریسید برای رسیدن به معشوق میبایستی 6000 بیت بخواند تا به معشوق برسد و چون لحظهای از وصال گذشت چاوسر بساط عاشق و معشوق را بر هم میریزد و جدائی میان آن در هم میریزد وجدائی میان آن دو میافکند موضوع این منظومه از یونان باستان اقتباس شده و قهرمان چاوسر چون ترویلوس بدست آخیلس کشته میشود با دعای زاهدانهای درباره آب، ابن و روح القدس داستان را پایان میدهد.
چاوسر داستانهای کاتربوری را با چنان مهارتی سرود و در طی نیم قرن سیر و سیاحت و سیر آفاق و انفس قهرمانان متعدد داستان از طبقات مختلف را چنان زیبا و مناسب در منظومه خویش جا داده است که آدمی دردها، خندهها و ناکامیهای آنها را حس میکند. در میان قهرمانان شهسوار، پسر شهسوار، مباشر، راهبه، چند کشیش، راهب عاشق پیشه، دانشجوی کشتیران، مسافرخانهچی و … را در این منظومه بوصف و سخن درآورده و روح و جان واقعی در داستان دمیده است.
چاوسر مفاسد و معایب جامعه را خوب درک کرده و در مجموع 50 داستانی که وعده داده، فقط 32 داستان را سروده است اقتباسها از منابع مختلف دیده میشود اما از طبع توانای شاعر نیز مطالب بکر پدید آمده است. در خفایای روانی شخصیتهای داستان کاوش کرده و به زبان هر یک به مناسبت حال آنها سخن گفته است زنان طبقه پست را تا حدی فرومایه میداند اما به زبان شریف نیز اشاره کرده است. از خطاها و حقارتهای آدمی خوب آگاهی دارد و نقائص بشری را خوب میشناسد و هجو عمیق از قبایح و آلودگیها میکند. از خرافه پرستی عهد خویش دور بود ظاهراً به دوزخ و بهشت اعتقاد داشت.
قرن شانزدهم و در دوران الیزابت ملکه انگلستان کتب بسیار از نظر و نثر و نمایشنامه از آثار کلاسیک یونانی، رومی، حتی ایتالیائی، اسپانیائی فرانسوی به زبان انگلیسی ترجمه شد بنابرانی ادبیات انگلیسی از منابع و سرچشمههای ترجمههای متنوع از آثار خارجی تأثیر گذاشت که بسیاری از نویسندگان مهم انگلیسی زبان فرانسه میدانستند، نفوذ ادبیات ایتالیای قرن چهاردهم و پانزدهم بر انگلستان بیش از اندازه بود حتی نوشتههای بوکاچیو نویسنده و شاعر ایتالیائی مورد تقلید مارلو، شکسپیر ، وبستر و مسنجر Massinger و فورد قرار گرفت و افسانههای انگلیسی نیز در ایتالیا تأثیر کرد. جنگهای مذهبی که میان پروتستانها و کاتولیکها در گرفت سبب شد که سرزندگی و نشاط ادبی رنسانس ایتالیا به اسپانیا و انگلستان راه یابد.
در انگلستان دوران الیزابت بیش از دویست تن شاعر معروف وجود و نظمو نثر رواج تمام داشت رفته رفته بازار نثر در انگلستان رایجتر میشد و کتاب ملکه به زبان اثر اسپنسر توجه مردم را به سوی نثر افزایش داد.
جان لیلی اولین کسی بود که مطلبی خیالی زیر عنوان یوفیوس یا تشریح ذوق در سال 1579 به نثر نشوت (درین اثر جوانی به نام یوفیوس که حوادثی بر او میگذرد). در این کتاب مباحثی در تعلیم و تربیت، کفر والحاد، دوستی و عشق و غیره آمده و از کتب موفق پر فروش زمان خود بود. شاید علت توفیق این اثر ادبی وجود تشبیهات، جناسها، عبارات متعادل و اشارات کلاسیک بود. توجه به کلمات و واژهها در دوران الیزابت خیلی زیاد بود و گبریل هاروی استاد کمبریج، سیدنی و اسپنسر در راه تأکید این موضوع کوشش فراوان کردند حتی انجمی ادبی به نام آرئوپاگوس تأسیس کردند اما عدهای نیز بهجو و مسخره کردن کارهای این دسته پرداختند و در نتیجه فحش و ناسزاگوئی در آثار و محاورات ادبی انگلستان راه یافت.
رابرت گرین مردی بیبند و بار بود که در سفرهایش به ایتالیا به قول خود مرتکب هر نوع آلودی و فساد شد چون به انگلستان بازگشت همان شیوه را در پیش گرفت آثاری خلق کرد که در خور توجه و ستایش است زیرا در عمر کوتاه خویش آثار متنوعی به وجود آورد از جمله:
اکتشاف عظیم تقلب (1591) که در از تقلب اوباش، حقهبازان، جیببرها، فاحشهها برحذر داشت روی همین اصل اراذل کمر به قتل وی بستند.
سی و پنج رساله و نمایشنامه متعدد نوشت. در سال 1591 کتابی تحت عنوان وداع با حماقت نوشت و در سال 1592 دو رساله جالب نوشت: 1- لطیفهای به یک درباری نویسنده در آن به گبریل هاروی حمله کرد 2- بذلهگویی بیارزشگرین که با یک میلیون توبه خریداری شده است و در آن به شکسپیر حمله کرد.
تامناش از دوستان گرین و از یاران شکسپیر و فرزند کشیشی بود که زندگی خود را با نوشتن تأمین و با اراذل و اوباش حشر و نشر میکرد. مسافر بدبخت یا زندگی جک ویلتون و چندین رساله جوابیه تحت عنوان برویه سفرون والدن از آثار وی است. مسافر بدبخت رمانی است که در آن اراذل و ولگردان نقشهای مهمی به عهده دارند.
تام تانش نمایشنامه دیدو Dido اثر مارلو دوست خود را کامل و با بن جانسون در تهیه کتاب جزیره سگان همکاری کرد و در سال 1601 در 34 سالگی درگذشت.
فیلیپ سیدنی (1554-1585) ظاهراً مردی ظریف اندام و بیبهره از تندرستی کامل ولی شجاع بود. در خانوادهای بزرگ و اشرافی پرورش و در نه سالگی منصب کلیسائی با حقوق سالانه 60 لیره یافت. در کمبریج تحصیل و به ایتالیا، فرانسه، هلند ، آلمان ، لهستان ، مجارستان و اتریش سفر کرد. چون به انگلستان بازگشت در دربار به مقام مهمی رسید با اینکه چندان ثروتمند نبود با اینحال از ادیبانی چون کامدن، هکلوت Haklwut ناش، هاروی، دون، جانسون و اسپنسر حمایت کرد. علاوه بر این در مباحث ادبی نظریات جالبی اظهار و آثار متنوعی از قبیل: دفاع از شعر، قصههای عاشقانه، غزلهای عاشقانه و آثار جالب دیگر خلق کرد. سیدنی در جنگی زخمی شد و بر اثر آن مرد.
Charles John Huffam Dickens (pronounced /ˈtʃɑrlz ˈdɪkɪnz/; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was the most popular English novelist of the Victorian era, and he remains popular, responsible for some of English literature's most iconic characters.[1]
Many of his novels, with their recurrent concern for social reform, first appeared in magazines in serialised form, a popular format at the time. Unlike other authors who completed entire novels before serialisation, Dickens often created the episodes as they were being serialized. The practice lent his stories a particular rhythm, punctuated by cliffhangers to keep the public looking forward to the next instalment.[2] The continuing popularity of his novels and short stories is such that they have never gone out of print.[3]
His work has been praised for its mastery of prose and unique personalities by writers such as George Gissing, Leo Tolstoy and G. K. Chesterton; though others, such as Henry James and Virginia Woolf, criticised it for sentimentality and implausibility.
Dickens loved the style of 18th century Gothic romance,[citation needed] although it had already become a target for parody.[citation needed] One "character" vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself. From the coaching inns on the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of the Thames, all aspects of the capital are described over the course of his body of work.
His writing style is florid and poetic, with a strong comic touch. His satires of British aristocratic snobbery—he calls one character the "Noble Refrigerator"—are often popular. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats, or dinner-party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens's acclaimed flights of fancy. Many of his characters' names provide the reader with a hint as to the roles played in advancing the storyline, such as Mr. Murdstone in the novel David Copperfield, which is clearly a combination of "murder" and stony coldness. His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy and realism.
Dickens is famed for his depiction of the hardships of the working class, his intricate plots, and his sense of humour. But he is perhaps most famed for the characters he created. His novels were heralded early in his career for their ability to capture the everyday man and thus create characters to whom readers could relate. Beginning with The Pickwick Papers in 1836, Dickens wrote numerous novels, each uniquely filled with believable personalities and vivid physical descriptions. Dickens's friend and biographer, John Forster, said that Dickens made "characters real existences, not by describing them but by letting them describe themselves."[45]
Dickensian characters—especially their typically whimsical names—are among the most memorable in English literature. The likes of Ebenezer Scrooge, Tiny Tim, Jacob Marley, Bob Cratchit, Oliver Twist, The Artful Dodger, Fagin, Bill Sikes, Pip, Miss Havisham, Charles Darnay, David Copperfield, Mr. Micawber, Abel Magwitch, Daniel Quilp, Samuel Pickwick, Wackford Squeers, Uriah Heep and many others are so well known and can be believed to be living a life outside the novels that their stories have been continued by other authors.[citation needed]